information technology

History of computer technology[edit]

Zuse Z3 replica on display at Deutsches Museum in Munich. The Zuse Z3 is the first programmable computer.

Main article: History of computing hardware

Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a tally stick.^[8] The Antikythera mechanism, dating from about the beginning of the first century BC, is generally considered to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer, and the earliest known geared mechanism.^[9] Comparable geared devices did not emerge in Europe until the 16th century,^[10] and it was not until 1645 that the first mechanical calculator capable of performing the four basic arithmetical operations was developed.^[11]

Electronic computers, using either relays or valves, began to appear in the early 1940s. The electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the world's first programmable computer, and by modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete computing machine. Colossus, developed during the Second World War to decrypt German messages was the first electronic digital computer. Although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a single task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory; programming was carried out using plugs and switches to alter the internal wiring.^[12] The first recognisably modern electronic digital stored-program computer was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM), which ran its first program on 21 June 1948.^[13]

The development of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories allowed a new generation of computers to be designed with greatly reduced power consumption. The first commercially available stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, contained 4050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts. By comparison the first transistorised computer, developed at the University of Manchester and operational by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its final version.^[14]

What is Computer Science??

• Computer science is a discipline that spans theory and practice. It requires thinking both in abstract terms and in concrete terms. The practical side of computing can be seen everywhere. Nowadays, practically everyone is a computer user, and many people are even computer programmers. Getting computers to do what you want them to do requires intensive hands-on experience. But computer science can be seen on a higher level, as a science of problem solving. Computer scientists must be adept at modeling and analyzing problems. They must also be able to design solutions and verify that they are correct. Problem solving requires precision, creativity, and careful reasoning.Computer science also has strong connections to other disciplines. Many problems in science, engineering, health care, business, and other areas can be solved effectively with computers, but finding a solution requires both computer science expertise and knowledge of the particular application domain. Thus, computer scientists often become proficient in other subjects.
  Finally, computer science has a wide range of specialties. These include computer architecture, software systems, graphics, artifical intelligence, computational science, and software engineering. Drawing from a common core of computer science knowledge, each specialty area focuses on particular challenges.
  

Computer Science is practiced by mathematicians, scientists and engineers. Mathematics, the origins of Computer Science, provides reason and logic. Science provides the methodology for learning and refinement. Engineering provides the techniques for building hardware and software.

• Finally, and most importantly, computer scientists are computer scientists because it is fun. (Not to mention lucrative career opportunities!)
• Another definition from http://www.csab.org/comp_sci_profession.htmlComputer Science: The Profession
  Computer science is a discipline that involves the understanding and design of computers and computational processes. In its most general form it is concerned with the understanding of information transfer and transformation. Particular interest is placed on making processes efficient and endowing them with some form of intelligence. The discipline ranges from theoretical studies of algorithms to practical problems of implementation in terms of computational hardware and software.
  A central focus is on processes for handling and manipulating information. Thus, the discipline spans both advancing the fundamental understanding of algorithms and information processes in general as well as the practical design of efficient reliable software and hardware to meet given specifications. Computer science is a young discipline that is evolving rapidly from its beginnings in the 1940's. As such it includes theoretical studies, experimental methods, and engineering design all in one discipline. This differs radically from most physical sciences that separate the understanding and advancement of the science from the applications of the science in fields of engineering design and implementation. In computer science there is an inherent intermingling of the theoretical concepts of compute ability and algorithmic efficiency with the modern practical advancements in electronics that continue to stimulate advances in the discipline. It is this close interaction of the theoretical and design aspects of the field that binds them together into a single discipline.
  Because of the rapid evolution it is difficult to provide a complete list of computer science areas. Yet it is clear that some of the crucial areas are theory, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. Other areas include software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, computer-human interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation.
  A professional computer scientist must have a firm foundation in the crucial areas of the field and will most likely have an in-depth knowledge in one or more of the other areas of the discipline, depending upon the person's particular area of practice. Thus, a well educated computer scientist should be able to apply the fundamental concepts and techniques of computation, algorithms, and computer design to a specific design problem. The work includes detailing of specifications, analysis of the problem, and provides a design that functions as desired, has satisfactory performance, is reliable and maintainable, and meets desired cost criteria. Clearly, the computer scientist must not only have sufficient training in the computer science areas to be able to accomplish such tasks, but must also have a firm understanding in areas of mathematics and science, as well as a broad education in liberal studies to provide a basis for understanding the societal implications of the work being performed.

The Difference Between Dynamic & Static Web Pages

by Micah McDunnigan

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In simplest terms, static Web pages are those with content that cannot change without a developer editing its source code, while dynamic Web pages can display different content from the same source code. When it comes to using static or dynamic pages for parts of your company's website, having the most advanced code on each of your pages is not important. What is important is the purpose each page serves for your website.

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Static Web Pages

Static Web pages display the exact same information whenever anyone visits it. Static Web pages do not have to be simple plain text. They can feature detailed multimedia design and even videos. However, every visitor to that page will be greeted by the exact same text, multimedia design or video every time he visits the page until you alter that page's source code.

Dynamic Web Pages

Dynamic Web pages are capable of producing different content for different visitors from the same source code file. The website can display different content based on what operating system or browser the visitor is using, whether she is using a PC or a mobile device, or even the source that referred the visitor. A dynamic Web page is not necessarily better than a static Web page. The two simply serve different purposes.

Dynamic Page Use

Dynamic pages can serve a variety of purposes. For example, websites run by content management systems allow a single source code file to load the content of many different possible pages. Content creators use a gateway page to submit the material for new pages into the CMS' database. The dynamic page can then load the material for any page in the database, based on parameters in the URL with which a visitor requests the page. Dynamic pages are also what let users log into websites to see personalized content.

Static vs Dynamic Creation

Developers generally create static pages with HTML, but use languages like PHP, Javascript, or Actionscript to create dynamic pages. They can also use frameworks like Ruby on Rails, Django, or Flex for dynamic pages. Dynamic languages and frameworks also have the technical capacity to create static Web page content. However, doing so creates source code that is unnecessarily complex for its purpose while being more difficult to maintain.

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Technology life cycle

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

The typical life-cycle of a manufacturing process or production system from the stages of its initial conception to its culmination as either a technique or procedure of common practice or to its demise. The Y-axis of the diagram shows the business gain to the proprietor of the technology while the X-axis traces its lifetime.

The technology life-cycle (TLC) describes the commercial gain of a product through the expense of research and development phase, and the financial return during its "vital life". Some technologies, such as steel, paper or cement manufacturing, have a long lifespan (with minor variations in technology incorporated with time) while in other cases, such as electronic or pharmaceutical products, the lifespan may be quite short.

The TLC associated with a product or technological service is different from product life-cycle (PLC) dealt with in product life-cycle management. The latter is concerned with the life of a product in the marketplace with respect to timing of introduction, marketing measures, and business costs. The technology underlying the product (for example, that of a uniquely flavoured tea) may be quite marginal but the process of creating and managing its life as a branded product will be very different.^{[citation needed]}

The technology life cycle is concerned with the time and cost of developing the technology, the timeline of recovering cost, and modes of making the technology yield a profit proportionate to the costs and risks involved. The TLC may, further, be protected during its cycle with patents and trademarks seeking to lengthen the cycle and to maximize the profit from it.

The product of the technology may be a commodity such as polyethylene plastic or a sophisticated product like the integrated circuits used in a smartphone.

The development of a competitive product or process can have a major effect on the lifespan of the technology, making it shorter. Equally, the loss of intellectual property rights through litigation or loss of its secret elements (if any) through leakages also work to reduce a technology's lifespan. Thus, it is apparent that the management of the TLC is an important aspect of technology development.

Most new technologies follow a similar technology maturity lifecycle describing the technological maturity of a product. This is not similar to a product life cycle, but applies to an entire technology, or a generation of a technology.

Technology adoption is the most common phenomenon driving the evolution of industries along the industry lifecycle. After expanding new uses of resources they end with exhausting the efficiency of those processes, producing gains that are first easier and larger over time then exhaustingly more difficult, as the technology matures. In fact, many authors sustain that actual economical trends presents clear symptoms of technological maturity, with particular attention to many traditional industrial sectors including automotive and aeronautical ones.^[1] Those considerations allows a clear verification of the state of technological maturity of the largest part of today transport vehicles industrial sector and that sustainability action are necessary for both reducing environmental impact and levels of technological maturity.^[2]

What is the difference between an input and output device?

An input device sends information to a computer system for processing, and an output device reproduces or displays the results of that processing. Depending on the interaction, a device can be both, referred to as an input/output or I/O device.

For example, as you can see in the top half of the image, a keyboard sends electrical signals, which are received by the computer (input). Those signals are then interpreted by the computer and displayed on the monitor as text (output). In the lower half of the image, the computer sends data to a printer, which will print the data onto a piece of paper (output).

More detailed examples

An input device can send data to another device, but it cannot receive data from another device. Examples of an input device include a computer keyboard and mouse, which can send data (input) to the computer, but they cannot receive or reproduce information (output) from the computer.

An output device can receive data from another device, but it cannot send data to another device. Examples of an output device include a computer monitor, projector, and speakers, which can receive data (output) from the computer, but they cannot send information (input) to the computer.

An input/output device can send data to another device and also receive data from another device. Examples of an input/output include a computer CD-RW drive and USB flash drive, which can send data (input) to a computer and also receive data (output) from a computer.

Fast-moving consumer goods

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Soft drinks are FMCGs

Fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) or consumer packaged goods (CPG) are products that are sold quickly and at relatively low cost. Examples include non-durable goods such as soft drinks, toiletries, over-the-counter drugs, processed foods and many other consumables.^[1][2] In contrast, durable goods or major appliances such as kitchen appliances are generally replaced over a period of several years.

FMCG have a short shelf life, either as a result of high consumer demand or because the product deteriorates rapidly. Some FMCGs, such as meat, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, and baked goods, are highly perishable. Other goods, such as alcohol, toiletries, pre-packaged foods, soft drinks, chocolate, candies, and cleaning products, have high turnover rates. The sales are sometimes influenced by some holidays and season.

Though the profit margin made on FMCG products is relatively small (more so for retailers than the producers/suppliers), they are generally sold in large quantities; thus, the cumulative profit on such products can be substantial. FMCG is a classic case of low margin 

Technology transfer & acquisition

Technology transfer & acquisition

1. 1. Technology Acquisition & Transfer By Dr. Vijay Kr. Khurana
2. 2. What is Technology Transfer ?• Technology Transfer is the process by which technology is disseminated.• It involves communication of relevant knowledge by the Transferor to the Recipient.• It is in the form of technology transfer transaction which way or may not be a legally binding contract.
3. 3. What is Technology Acquisition ?Twoterms technology transfer and technology are normally used interchangeably.The verb “Acquire” means• To come into possesion of; get as one’s own• To gain for oneself through one’s actions or effortsTechnology Acquisition is the process of acquiring a new technology, new product, process or service ; by efforts of an individual or an enterprise or any other macro entity. This process can be conducted either internally or externally to the enterprise.
4.                           . Types of Technology Transfer•
5.  Scientific Knowledge Transfer, Direct Technology Transfer, Spin-off Technology Transfer• Informal Technology Transfer & Formal Technology Transfer• Internal Technology Transfer & External Technology Transfer
6. 1. Internal Technology TransferInternal Technology Transfer refer to such technology transfers / investments where control on the ownership & usage of technology resides with the transferor.It is a complex process involving following decisions:• 
7. Timing : When to introduce new technology / products in the market?• 
8. Location : Where to transfer new technology / products?•
9. Multi-functional teams --Which staff members should be involved in transfer process ?
10. Communication methods & procedures – What type of Communication methods & procedures be adopted to facilitate transfer ?
11. . Barriers to Internal Technology Transfer• R & D goals are not known to Production Department.• 
12. Difficulties in stopping current production to test new products / processes•
13.  R&D Department does not understand needs & capability of Production Department.• 
14. In general, Production Department is resistant to innovation and is bound by routine.• Non-linkage of new technologies to marketing / customer needs.
15. 7. Overcoming Barriers to Internal Technology Transfer• Top management support and participation in the transfer process• Providing supportive organizational culture• Use of multi-functional teams in the transfer process• Ensuring effective communication in the organization• Bringing R&D closer to production.• Rotation of few person between R&D and production• Linking & participation of marketing elements in the transfer process.
16. 8. Steps in Internal Technology Acquisition by a firm1. Planning new products / services / processes to be offered – planning must incorporate voice of the customer & user needs2. Screening new products, processes or services – only viable / feasible items be offered as only one out of 4/5 becomes a commercial success.3. Initiating development process – must be properly designed and carried out so that it facilitates success. Enterprises shoulda. Consist of temporary system capable of adapting to dymanics of changeb. Organize the systems around problem solving
17. 9. Steps in Internal Technology Acquisition by a firmc. Have flexible management system & replace rigid management systemd. Use multi-functional teams.e. Proper integration between R&D, Production & Marketing sub-systemsf. Ensure effective communication4. Carrying out trial production on small scale and test marketing5. Improving design & production processes based on experiences / feedback6. Commercialization i.e. mass production & sales
18. 10. External Technology Transfer• In these transfers, control on the ownership & usage of technology usually does not remain with transferor and it passes on to the recipient, like joint venture with local control, licensing agreement etc.
19. 11. External Technology TransferSuccessful external technology transfer depends upon following factors:• Type of the technology being transferred• Complexity of the technology being transferred• Transfer mechanism selected• Relationships between the parties – building of mutual trust• Core competencies of the parties & compatibilty thereof• Organizational culture of the parties & mutual understanding thereof
20. 12. Methods of External Technology Transfer• Co-operative & collaborative ventures / strategic alliances• Licensing agreements• Contracting agreements• Enterprise acquisition.
21. 13. Why External Technology Transfer• Technology already developed saves time & efforts• Sometimes Growth objectives or competitive goals cannot be reached through internal development• Lack of risk taking ability for innovations• Lack of internal resources (physical & human) for innovation• Firm does not have core competencies to deal with complex technological developments.• Need to keep up with competitors• Need to cope up with acceleration of technological change• As a part of firm’ strategy --- let other firms take big risks & it will purchase technology developed by them.
22. 14. Barriers to External Technology Transfer• Associated costs – usually high prices are required to be paid in the form of royalities, technical & knowhow fees etc over medium to long term period• Appropriatesness of technology i.e. its suitability to core competencies and market needs is always a point of discussion and investigation• Heavy reliances on foreign technology- may make transferee / recipient technologically dependent on external technology providers / transferors even for small issues• Lack of mutual trust between two parties may hinder full & timely transfer
23. 15. Barriers to External Technology Transfer• There is risk of loss of control over technology and the transferee / recipient may use technology in an arbitrary manner• Transfer may render existing technology & its related products / services / processes obsolete• Transferee may turn a potential competitor in future.• Mismatch in core competencies of the transferor & transferee may create difficulties in transfer• Different organisation cultures may create difficulties in transfer• Lack of effective communication between the parties may also create difficulties in transfer
24. 16. Overcoming Barriers to External Technology Transfer• Proper & well defined technology transfer agreement should be signed• Proper assessment / evaluation of appropriateness of technology• Proper assessment / evaluation of compatability of core competencies of the parties• Building pre-agreement relationships so as to develop mutual trust and so as to understand culture of opposite parties• Seeking cross cultural training• Ensuring effective communication• Anticipating problems and adopting measures for facilitating transfer
25. 17. Steps in External Technology Acquisition by a firm –1. Identification of Need2. Developing list of suitable technology providers3. Short listing / selecting suitable technology providers on the basis …. Cultural compatibility, compatibility of core competences, appropriateness of technology, technical feasibility etc4. Negotiation5. Agreement6. Payments as per agreement7. Transfer of specifications, blueprints, designs, documents, CDs to purchaser8. Training of technical personnel of purchaser
26. 18. Modes of Payment for Technology Transfer• Lumpsum payment or periodical instalments• Royalities as a %age of sales over next few years• Cross-licensing agreements• Contracted supply of output• Issue of equity shares in lieu of technology transferred
27. 19. Acquisition of Technology By Nation• What factors influence acquisition decision?• What are national strategies for technology acquisition?• Methods of technology acquisition by a nation
28. 20. Methods of Technology Acquisition By Nation• Attracting TNCs / MNCs – Through direct measures viz. making a positive list of industries open to FDI – Through indirect measures - viz by offering incentives & subsidies• Attracting TNCs / MNCs into natural resource processing & inducing greater value additions• Using TNCs / MNCs to attract / encourage their overseas suppliers to invest into country• Improving skills & training of local technologists by involving TNCs / MNCs
29. 21. Methods of Technology Acquisition By Nation • Developing industrial parks / technology parks to attract high technology investors • Offering incentives to existing investors to move to more complex technologies and to increase or upgrade technological R& D base • Changing competitive environment and existing incentive structure to encourage world class technology & management • Improving technological access for local firms for outsourcing / technology transfer • Collecting, organising & disseminating information about technology development
30. 22. Regulation of Technology Transfer By Nation• The regulation is undertaken in two directions: – Regulation of import of technology / technology inflows – Regulation of export of technology / technology outflows & Setting up of Joint Ventures (JV) and Wholly Owned Subsidiaries (WOS) Abroad• Why regulation of import of technology? – What are advantages & disadvantages of import of technology?• What are – Guidelines on import of Foreign Technology into India?• Why regulation of export of technology? –What are advantages & disadvantages of export of technology?• What are – Guidelines on Export of Technology & Setting up Joint Venture & Wholly Owned subsidiary abroad?
31. 23. Technology Acquisition & Transfer By Dr. Vijay Kr. Khurana

WHAT IS INTERNET AND HISTORY

           INTERNET AND HISTORY                                                                                                                                                                                                            

Writ

ten By: 

Abhimanyu Mathur

When the computing era took a major leap in the 80s, it was all just about the operating systems and the programming languages. People were getting gaga over the heavy technology revolution thinking that this is the one thing that the world needed to get over the bounds of time and space, and as usual, they were wrong. It was not long after the computer revolution that a tide, a blizzard of communication, arrived. This technology now makes the computers look lifeless if they don’t have it. Connecting the corners of the cobwebbed world even from its remotest corner is the 'Internet'.

Internet: What is Internet?

Not confining itself to any particular definition, the Internet can be defined as the wired or wireless mode of communication through which one can receive, transmit information that can be used for single or multiple operations.

 

History of Internet

This marvelous tool has quite a history that holds its roots in the cold war scenario. A need was realized to connect the top universities of the United States so that they can share all the research data without having too much of a time lag. This attempt was a result of Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) which was formed at the end of 1950s just after the Russians had climbed the space era with the launch of Sputnik. After the ARPA got success in 1969, it didn’t take the experts long to understand that how much potential can this interconnection tool have. In 1971 Ray Tomlinson made a system to send electronic maill. This was a big step in the making as this opened gateways for remote computer accessing i.e. telnet.

 

During all this time, rigorous paper work was being done in all the elite research institutions. From giving every computer an address to setting out the rules, everything was getting penned down. 1973 saw the preparations for the vital TCP/IP and Ethernet services. At the end of 1970s, Usenet groups had surfaced up. By the time the 80s had started, IBM came up with its PC based on Intel 8088 processor which was widely used by students and universities for it solved the purpose of easy computing. By 1982, the Defence Agencies made the TCP/IP compulsory and the term “internet” was coined. The domain name services arrived in the year 1984 which is also the time around which various internet based marked their debut. As the internet was coming out of its incubation period which was almost two and a half decades long, the world saw the first glitch that was not at all a part of planned strategy. A worm, or a rust the computers, attacked in 1988 and disabled over 10% of the computer systems all over the world. While most of the researchers regarded it as an opportunity to enhance computing as it was still in its juvenile phase, quite a number of computer companies became interested in dissecting the cores of the malware which resulted to the formation Computer Emergency Rescue Team (CERT). Soon after the world got over with the computer worm, World Wide Web came into existence. Discovered by Tim Berners-Lee, World Wide Web was seen as a service to connect documents in websites using hyperlinks.

 

By the time the 90s arrived, the larvae had started coming out as more than 40million computers had been sold out, an antivirus had already been launched as well as the graphical user interface was quite in its evolution. “Archie”, the first internet search marked beginning of a new era in internet computing. Categorizing the websites was in its most dynamic phase as commercialized email websites were getting on day by day. It was during this time that the term “spam” was coined which referred to fake emails or hoaxes. Read more about email and email working. In 1992, internet browser called “Mosaic” came into existence. One of the very popular internet browsers, Netscape Navigator made its debut in 1994 which ultimately went to compete with Microsoft’s Internet Explorer. By this time the domain name registration had started to get exponential and was made commercial. In short the Internet Explosion had started to occur.

 

Coming years saw the launch of giants such as Google, Yahoo as well as strengthening of ultimate revolution creators i.e. Microsoft, Google, IBM etc.